Ukubuka Konke Kwemakethe Ye-Polymer Resin Yomhlaba Wonke

Usayizi Wemakethe Ye-Polymer Resin wawulinganiselwa ku-USD 157.6 Billion ngo-2023. Imboni ye-Polymer Resin kulindeleke ukuthi ikhule kusuka ku-USD 163.6 Billion ngo-2024 iye ku-USD 278.7 Billion ngo-2032, okubonisa izinga lokukhula lonyaka elihlanganisiwe (i-CAGR) elingu-6.9% ngesikhathi sokubikezela (2024 - 2032). Isilinganiso sezimboni sama-resin ezitshalo atholakala ngokwemvelo ama-resin ezitshalo afana ne-polymer resin, i-polymer resin nayo iqala njengoketshezi olunamathelayo, oluqina unomphela ngemva kokuvezwa emoyeni isikhathi esithile esinqunyiwe. Ngokuvamile, ama-polymer asetha ukushisa kanye nezinye izinto eziphilayo ziyasethwa ukuze zikhiqizwe. Amafutha e-hydrocarbon afaka igesi yemvelo, uwoyela ongahluziwe, amalahle, usawoti, kanye nesihlabathi asetshenziswa njengezisekelo zokwakha i-polymer resin. Abakhiqizi bezinto zokusetshenziswa abaguqula izinto eziphakathi babe ama-polymer nama-resin kanye nabaprosesa abaguqula lezi zinto zibe yizimpahla eziqediwe bakha izingxenye ezimbili eziyinhloko zemboni ye-polymer resin. Abaphakeli bezinto zokusetshenziswa basebenzisa i-resin intermediate noma i-monomer enenye yezinqubo ze-polymerization ukukhiqiza ama-polymer aluhlaza. Izinto ze-polymer ezingavuthiwe zivame ukukhiqizwa futhi zithengiswe ngesimo soketshezi sezinto zokunamathisela, ama-sealant, nama-resin, yize zingathengwa ngobuningi obukhulu njengama-pellets, ama-powders, ama-granules, noma amashidi. Umthombo omkhulu wezinto ezisetshenziswayo ze-polymer uwoyela, noma i-petroleum eluhlaza. Abaprosesa bavame ukusebenzisa amasu okuqhekeka ukuguqula ama-hydrocarbon e-petroleum abe ama-alkenes angenziwa nge-polymer njenge-ethylene, i-propylene, ne-butylene.

Izitayela Zemakethe Ye-Polymer Resin

Ama-resin e-polymer asekelwe kwi-bio athola amandla okusebenza njengezixazululo zokupakisha ezisimeme

Ama-resin e-polymer asekelwe ku-bio avele njengesixazululo esivelele sokubhekana nokukhathazeka okwandayo ngokusimama kwemvelo kanye nemiphumela emibi yokupakisha kwepulasitiki yendabuko. Njengoba ulwazi olukhulayo ngokungcola kwepulasitiki kanye nemiphumela yako emibi ezindaweni zemvelo, abathengi, amabhizinisi, kanye nohulumeni bayanda ukwamukela ama-resin e-polymer asekelwe ku-bio njengendlela eqhubekayo yokusetshenziswa kokupakisha. Lo mkhuba uqhutshwa yizici eziningana ezibalulekile eziqokomisa izinzuzo kanye nekhono lama-resin e-polymer asekelwe ku-bio ekuguquleni imboni yokupakisha ibe yikusasa elizinzile. Amapulasitiki avamile asekelwe ku-petroleum abelokhu eyisinqumo esiyinhloko sokupakisha ngenxa yokusebenza kwawo kahle kwezindleko, ukuguquguquka, kanye nokuqina. Kodwa-ke, ukungaboli kwawo kanye nokuphikelela kwawo emvelweni kuholele ekuqongeleleni okukhulu kwemfucuza yepulasitiki, okubeka usongo olukhulu empilweni yasolwandle, izilwane zasendle, kanye nempilo yabantu. Ngokuphambene nalokho, ama-resin e-polymer asekelwe ku-bio atholakala emithonjeni evuselelekayo njengezitshalo, ulwelwe, noma i-biomass yemfucuza, enikeza indlela yokunciphisa ukuncika kumafutha emvelo kanye nokunciphisa umthelela wekhabhoni ohlotshaniswa nokukhiqizwa kwepulasitiki.

Enye yezinzuzo ezibaluleke kakhulu zama-polymer resins asekelwe ku-bio ukubola kwawo kanye nokwakheka kwawo. Amapulasitiki endabuko angathatha amakhulu eminyaka ukubola, kanti ezinye izindlela ezisekelwe ku-bio zingaqhekeka ngokwemvelo zibe yizingxenye ezingenabo ubuthi esikhathini esifushane. Lesi sici siqinisekisa ukuthi i-bio-basedizinto zokupakishaazihlali emvelweni, zinciphisa ingozi yokungcola kanye nokulimala kwezindawo zemvelo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ama-polymer resins akhiwe nge-bio angacebisa inhlabathi njengoba ebola, okunegalelo endleleni eyindilinga nevuselelayo yokuphatha imfucuza. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukukhiqizwa kwama-polymer resins akhiwe nge-bio ngokuvamile kuhilela ukukhishwa kwegesi ebamba ukushisa okuphansi uma kuqhathaniswa nokwabanye abakhiwe nge-petroleum. Ngenxa yalokho, amabhizinisi nezimboni ezifuna ukunciphisa umthelela wawo wekhabhoni ziphendukela kwezinye izindlela ezisekelwe ku-bio njengendlela ephumelelayo yokufeza imigomo yazo yokuzinza. Ngaphezu kwalokho, amanye ama-polymer akhiwe nge-bio angaze athathe ikhabhoni ngesikhathi sokukhula kwawo, awenze abe yizinto ezingenayo ikhabhoni futhi anikele ekunciphiseni ukuguquka kwesimo sezulu.

Eminyakeni yamuva nje, intuthuko yezobuchwepheshe kanye nokusungula izinto ezintsha kuthuthukise kakhulu ukusebenza kanye nokusebenza kwama-resin e-polymer asekelwe ku-bio. Abakhiqizi manje sebekwazi ukwenza ngokwezifiso izakhiwo zalezi zinto ukuze zivumelane nezidingo ezahlukene zokupakisha, njengokuguquguquka, izakhiwo zokuvimbela, kanye namandla. Ngenxa yalokho, ama-resin e-polymer asekelwe ku-bio athola ukusetshenziswa kabanzi ezimbonini eziningi, okuhlanganisa ukudla neziphuzo, izimonyo, imithi, nokuningi. Imithethonqubo nezinqubomgomo zikahulumeni nazo zidlale indima ebalulekile ekukhuthazeni ukwamukelwa kwama-resin e-polymer asekelwe ku-bio. Amazwe amaningi nezifunda asebenzise izinyathelo zokuvimbela noma zokuvimbela imikhiqizo yepulasitiki esetshenziswa kanye, ekhuthaza amabhizinisi ukuthi ahlole ezinye izindlela eziqhubekayo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ohulumeni banganikeza izikhuthazo noma izibonelelo zokukhuthaza ukusetshenziswa kwezinto ezisekelwe ku-bio, okuqhubekisela phambili ukukhula kwemakethe.

Ukushintshela kuma-resin e-polymer asekelwe ku-bio akubanga nezinselele, nokho. Naphezu kwentuthuko eyenziwe ocwaningweni nasekuthuthukisweni, izinto ezisekelwe ku-bio zisengabhekana nemikhawulo ngokwezindleko kanye nokukhula. Izinqubo zokukhiqiza zama-resin athile asekelwe ku-bio zingadinga izinsiza ezibalulekile, ezingathinta ukusebenza kahle kwezindleko uma kuqhathaniswa namapulasitiki endabuko. Kodwa-ke, njengoba ubuchwepheshe buthuthuka futhi isidingo sikhula, umnotho wesilinganiso cishe uzonciphisa izindleko futhi wenze ama-resin e-polymer asekelwe ku-bio ancintisane kakhudlwana.

Ukukhula kokudonswa kwama-polymer resins asekelwe ku-bio njengezixazululo zokupakisha ezisimeme kuphawula isinyathelo esibalulekile ekunciphiseni ukungcola kwepulasitiki nokwakha umphakathi oqaphela imvelo kakhudlwana. Ngokubola kwawo, ukwehla kwe-carbon footprint, kanye nokwandisa amakhono okusebenza, lezi zinto zinikeza enye indlela ekhangayo kunepulasitiki yendabuko esekelwe ku-petroleum. Njengoba amabhizinisi, abathengi, kanye nohulumeni beqhubeka nokubeka phambili ukusimama, imakethe ye-polymer resins esekelwe ku-bio ikulungele ukukhula okuqhubekayo, okukhuthaza umnotho ojikelezayo lapho imfucuza yokupakisha incishiswa khona, futhi izinsiza zisetshenziswa kahle kakhulu. Ngokwamukela izinto ezisekelwe ku-bio, imboni yokupakisha ingadlala indima ebalulekile ekuvikeleni iplanethi yezizukulwane ezizayo.

Ukuqonda Ingxenye Yemakethe Ye-Polymer Resin

Imakethe ye-Polymer Resin yi-Resin Type Insights

Ngokusekelwe ohlotsheni lwe-resin, ukuhlukaniswa kwemakethe ye-Polymer Resin kufaka phakathi i-polystyrene, i-polyethylene,i-polyvinyl chloride, i-polypropylene, i-polystyrene enwebekayo, nabanye. Umkhiqizo othandwa kakhulu emakethe ye-polymer resin yi-polyethylene. Uthandwa kakhulu emikhakheni eminingana ngenxa yokuzivumelanisa nezimo, ukuqina, kanye nokungabizi kakhulu. Imikhiqizo eminingi, njengezinto zokupakisha, izikhwama zepulasitiki, izitsha, amapayipi, amathoyizi, nezingxenye zezimoto, isebenzisa i-polyethylene. Ukusetshenziswa kwayo okubanzi kwenziwa lula ukumelana kwayo namakhemikhali aphezulu, ukumuncwa komswakama ophansi, kanye nokulula kokukhiqiza. Okuthuthukisa kakhulu ukuzivumelanisa nezimo kwayo kanye nokukhanga kwayo kwezentengiselwano yizinhlobo zayo ezahlukene, njenge-polyethylene ephezulu (HDPE) kanye ne-polyethylene ephansi (LDPE), enikeza izimfanelo ezikhethekile zezicelo.

Imakethe ye-Polymer Resin ngokuqonda kwesicelo

Ukuhlukaniswa kwemakethe ye-Polymer Resin, okusekelwe ekusetshenzisweni, kufaka phakathi ugesi kanye ne-elekthronikhi, ukwakhiwa, ezokwelapha, ezimoto, abathengi, izimboni, ukupakisha, nokunye. Ukupakisha kuyindlela evame ukusetshenziswa kakhulu ehlobene nemakethe ye-polymer resin. Ama-polymer resin, kufaka phakathi i-polyethylene, i-polypropylene, kanye ne-polystyrene, avame ukusetshenziswa ezintweni zokupakisha. Alungele ukusetshenziswa okuhlukahlukene kokupakisha ngenxa yezimfanelo zawo eziphakeme, kufaka phakathi ukuqina, ukuguquguquka, kanye nokumelana nomswakama. Ama-polymer resin ayizinto ezikhethwayo zokupakisha ezimbonini ezahlukahlukene, kufaka phakathi ukupakisha ukudla neziphuzo, imithi, izimpahla zabathengi, kanye nezimpahla zezimboni. Lokhu kungenxa yokuthi angamboza futhi alondoloze izinto ngempumelelo, ashibhile, futhi angasetshenziswa ezindleleni nasezidizayini ezahlukahlukene zephakheji.

Ukuqonda Kwesifunda Kwemakethe Ye-Polymer Resin

Ngokwesifunda, lolu cwaningo luhlinzeka ngemininingwane yemakethe eNyakatho Melika, eYurophu, e-Asia-Pacific, kanye nakwamanye amazwe omhlaba. Ngenxa yezizathu eziningana, indawo yase-Asia Pacific ibone ukwanda okukhulu kanye nokubuswa kwemakethe. Iyikhaya lezikhungo ezibalulekile zezimboni njengeShayina, iNdiya, iJapan, kanye neNingizimu Korea, lapho izinto ezenziwe nge-polymer resin zidingeka kakhulu ezimbonini ezahlukahlukene. Ngaphezu kwalokho, amazwe amakhulu afundwe emakethe yi-US, iCanada, iJalimane, iFrance, i-UK, i-Italy, iSpain, iShayina, iJapan, iNdiya, i-Australia, iNingizimu Korea, kanye neBrazil.

Imakethe ye-Polymer Resin Abadlali Ababalulekile Bemakethe kanye Nokuqonda Okuncintisanayo

Abathengisi abaningi besifunda nabasendaweni bachaza i-polymer resin, imakethe inokuncintisana okukhulu, bonke abadlali bencintisana ukuze bathole isabelo esiphezulu semakethe. Isidingo esikhulayo se-polymer resin emikhakheni yokupakisha kanye ne-oyili negesi sikhulisa ukuthengiswa kwe-polymer resin. Abathengisi bancintisana ngokusekelwe ezindleleni, ikhwalithi yomkhiqizo, kanye nokutholakala kwemikhiqizo ngokwezindawo. Abathengisi kumele bahlinzeke nge-polymer resin engabizi futhi esezingeni eliphezulu ukuze bancintisane emakethe.

Ukukhula kwabadlali bemakethe kuncike ezimweni zemakethe kanye nezomnotho, imithetho kahulumeni, kanye nentuthuko yezimboni. Ngakho-ke, abadlali kufanele bagxile ekwandiseni amandla abo okukhiqiza ukuze bahlangabezane nesidingo futhi bathuthukise iphothifoliyo yabo yomkhiqizo. I-Borealis AG, i-BASF SE, i-Evonik Industries AG, i-LyondellBasell Industries NV, i-Shell Plc, i-Solvay, i-Roto Polymers, i-Dow Chemical Company, i-Nan Ya Plastics Corp, i-Saudi Arabia Basic Industries Corporation, i-Celanese Corporation, i-INEOS Group, kanye ne-Exxon Mobil Corporation yizinkampani ezinkulu emakethe okwamanje ezincintisanayo ngokwekhwalithi, intengo, kanye nokutholakala. Laba badlali bagxile kakhulu ekuthuthukisweni kwe-polymer resin. Nakuba abadlali bamazwe ngamazwe bebusa imakethe, abadlali besifunda nabasendaweni abanamasheya amancane emakethe nabo banendawo ephakathi nendawo. Abadlali bamazwe ngamazwe abanobukhona bomhlaba wonke, abanamayunithi okukhiqiza noma amahhovisi okuthengisa asunguliwe, baqinise ubukhona babo ezifundeni ezinkulu njengeNyakatho Melika, iYurophu, i-Asia-Pacific, iLatin America, kanye neMpumalanga Ephakathi kanye ne-Afrika.

I-Borealis AG: ungumholi ekusetshenzisweni kabusha kwe-polyolefin eYurophu futhi ungomunye wabahlinzeki abaphezulu emhlabeni bezixazululo ze-polyolefin ezisezingeni eliphezulu nezinobungani nemvelo. Le nkampani ibusa izimakethe zamakhemikhali nomanyolo eziyisisekelo eYurophu. Le nkampani izenzele igama njengomlingani webhizinisi othembekile kanye nophawu lomhlaba wonke oluhlala lunezela inani kubalingani bayo, amaklayenti, kanye namakhasimende. Le nkampani iyibhizinisi elihlangene phakathi kwe-OMV, ibhizinisi lomhlaba wonke likawoyela negesi elinendlunkulu e-Austria, eliphethe amasheya angu-75%, kanye ne-Abu Dhabi National Oil Corporation (ADNOC), elinendlunkulu e-United Arab Emirates (UAE), elinamasheya angu-25% asele. Nge-Borealis kanye namabhizinisi amabili abalulekile ahlangene, i-Borouge (ene-ADNOC, ese-UAE) kanye ne-BaystarTM (ene-TotalEnergies, ese-US), inikeza izinsizakalo kanye nezimpahla kumakhasimende emhlabeni wonke.

Le nkampani inezikhungo zesevisi yamakhasimende e-Austria, eBelgium, eFinland, eFrance, eTurkey, e-United States. Izimboni Zokukhiqiza zise-Austria, eBelgium, eBrazil, eFinland, eFrance, eJalimane, e-Italy, eSouth Korea, eSweden, eNetherlands, e-United States, kanti izikhungo zokusungula izinto ezintsha zise-Austria, eFinland, naseSweden. Le nkampani inendawo yokusebenza ezifundeni ezingu-120 kulo lonke elaseYurophu, eNyakatho Melika, e-Asia-Pacific, eLatin America, eMpumalanga Ephakathi, nase-Afrika.

I-BASF SE:ingenye yabakhiqizi bamakhemikhali abahamba phambili emhlabeni. Le nkampani iyiphayona emakethe ekushayeleni ushintsho ekukhipheni i-CO2 engenayo ngesu eliphelele lokuphatha ikhabhoni. Inezindlela ezintsha eziqinile ezisebenzisa ubuchwepheshe obuhlukahlukene ukunikeza izixazululo zezimboni ezahlukene zamakhasimende nokukhulisa umkhiqizo. Le nkampani isebenza ngezigaba eziyisithupha: izinto zokwakha, izixazululo zezimboni, amakhemikhali, ubuchwepheshe bomphezulu, izixazululo zezolimo, kanye nokudla okunempilo nokunakekelwa. Inikeza ama-resin e-polymer kuyo yonke imikhakha kufaka phakathi umkhakha wokupakisha kanye nowoyela negesi. Le nkampani isebenza ngezigaba eziyi-11 eziphatha amayunithi ebhizinisi omhlaba wonke nawesifunda angu-54 futhi ithuthukise amasu amabhizinisi angamasu angu-72. I-BASF iphawula ukuba khona kwayo emazweni angu-80 futhi isebenza ngezindawo eziyisithupha zaseVerbund, ezixhumanisa ukusebenza kwezitshalo zokukhiqiza, ukugeleza kwamandla, kanye nengqalasizinda ezifundeni ezahlukene. Inamayunithi okukhiqiza angaba ngu-240 emhlabeni wonke kufaka phakathi iLudwigshafen, eJalimane, indawo enkulu kunazo zonke emhlabeni yamakhemikhali ehlanganisiwe ephethwe yinkampani eyodwa. I-BASF isebenza kakhulu eYurophu futhi inendawo esebenzayo eMelika, e-Asia-Pacific, eMpumalanga Ephakathi nase-Afrika. Ikhonza amakhasimende angaba ngu-82,000 avela cishe kuzo zonke izigaba emhlabeni jikelele.

Izinkampani Ezibalulekile Emakethe Ye-Polymer Resin zifaka phakathi.

●I-Borealis AG
●I-BASF SE
●I-Evonik Industries AG
●ULyondellBasell Industries NV
●I-Shell Plc
●I-Solvay
●Ama-Roto Polymers
●Inkampani Yamakhemikhali iDow
●I-Nan Ya Plastics Corp
●I-Saudi Arabia Basic Industries Corporation
●Inkampani iCelanese
●Iqembu le-INEOS
●Inkampani ye-Exxon Mobil

Ukuthuthukiswa Kwemboni Yemakethe Ye-Polymer Resin

Meyi 2023: ULyondellBasell kanye neVeolia Belgium basungule i-joint venture (JV) ye-Quality Circular Polymers (QCP) ephinda isebenzise ipulasitiki. Ngokuvumelana nesivumelwano, iLyondellBasell izothenga inzalo ka-50% yeVeolia Belgium ku-QCP ukuze ibe ngumnikazi wenkampani kuphela. Lokhu kuthengwa kuhambisana nohlelo lukaLyondellBasell lokwakha inkampani ephumelelayo yezomnotho ojikelezayo kanye nezixazululo eziphansi kwekhabhoni ukuze kuhlangatshezwane nesidingo esikhulayo sezimpahla nezinsizakalo ezinobungani nemvelo.

Mashi 2023ULyondellBasell kanye neMepol Group base bengene esivumelwaneni sokuthenga iMepol Group. Lokhu kuthengwa kubonisa ukuzibophezela kukaLyondellBasell ekuthuthukiseni umnotho ojikelezayo.

Novemba-2022: I-Shell Chemical Appalachia LLC, inkampani engaphansi kweShell plc, imemezele ukuthi i-Shell Polymers Monaca (SPM), iphrojekthi ye-Pennsylvania Chemical, isiqalile ukusebenza. Ifektri yasePennsylvania, enomkhiqizo ohlosiwe wamathani ayizigidi ezingu-1.6 ngonyaka, iyindawo yokuqala ebalulekile yokukhiqiza i-polyethylene eNyakatho-mpumalanga ye-United States.

Meyi 2024:Ngokuqala ukusebenza kwesitshalo sayo sokuqala sase-US sokukhiqiza ama-compound epulasitiki e-EC kanye nama-masterbatches, i-Premix Oy manje isisungule ngokusemthethweni ihhovisi e-United States. Abakhulumeli benkampani balindele ukuthi lesi sitshalo esengeziwe sizovumela "amakhasimende ukuthi asebenzise izinto ezivela emazwekazini amabili abakhiqizi bethu abasezingeni eliphezulu. Njengekhasimende le-Premix e-US, uzozuza emikhiqizweni nasezinsizeni ezenziwe endaweni, ezizoqinisekisa izikhathi ezimfushane zokuhola kanye nokuphepha okuphezulu kokunikezwa. Engxoxweni, bathi kuzoqashwa abasebenzi abangu-30-35 lapho isitshalo okukhulunywa ngaso kulindeleke ukuthi sisebenze ekupheleni kwekota yokuqala ka-2025. Kusetshenziswe amathreyi ezingxenye ze-ESD emabhokisini e-foam okupakisha ngobuningi, amakhreyi, nama-pallet. Ama-compound angasetshenziswa kumathreyi ezingxenye ze-ESD, kuma-foam okupakisha ngobuningi, amabhokisi, amakhreyi nama-pallet. Namuhla, ukusebenza eFinland kunamandla okuhlanganisa izinhlobo ezahlukene zama-polymer ayisisekelo njenge-ABS, i-polycarbonate, izingxube ze-PC/ABS, i-nylon 6, i-PBT kanye ne-thermoplastic elastomers, i-TPES kanye ne-thermoplastic polyurethanes TPUs.

Agasti 2024:I-resin entsha engagcwalisiwe, eguquliwe ngomthelela ye-polybutylene terephthalate manje itholakala kwa-Polymer Resources, inkampani ehlanganisa ama-resin obunjiniyela yase-US. I-resin ye-TP-FR-IM3 ingasetshenziswa ekusetshenzisweni kukagesi ezimweni zezulu ezifana nezindawo zokuvala/izindlu zangaphandle, ezivalekile nezingaphakathi. Inamandla amahle okushisa, amandla okushisa, ukumelana namakhemikhali kanye nokuvinjelwa komlilo. I-Tagheuer ithi ithole isitifiketi sombala wonke ngaphansi kwe-UL743C F1. Iphinde ihlangabezane namazinga e-UL94 V0 kanye ne-UL94 5VA okushisa umlilo lapho ubukhulu bawo bungu-1.5 mm (.06 inches) futhi inikeza ezinye izindlela eziningi zokulungisa ezifana namandla okushisa aphezulu, ukumelana nogesi okuphezulu, amandla okushisa aphezulu kanye nokulahlekelwa okuphansi kwe-dielectric. Leli banga elisha liphinde lihambisane nombala wonke we-UL F1 wokusetshenziswa kwangaphandle futhi liyakwazi ukumelana notshani obunzima kanye namakhemikhali engadini, izimoto kanye nokuhlanza.

Ukuhlukaniswa Kwemakethe Ye-Polymer Resin Ukubuka Uhlobo Lwe-Resin Yemakethe Ye-Polymer Resin

● I-Polystyrene
● I-Polyethylene
●I-Polyvinyl Chloride
● I-Polypropylene
●I-Polystyrene Enwebekayo
●Okunye

Umbono Wokusetshenziswa Kwemakethe Ye-Polymer Resin

●Ezogesi Nezogesi
●Ukwakha
● Ezokwelapha
●Izimoto
●Umthengi
● Ezezimboni
●Ukupakisha
●Abanye

Umbono Wesifunda Semakethe Ye-Polymer Resin

●ENyakatho Melika

i-oUS

oCanada

● IYurophu

oGermany

eFrance

i-oUK

e-Italy

iSpain

oIngxenye yonke yeYurophu

●I-Asia-Pacific

i-oChina

oJapan

i-oIndia

oAustralia

oSouth Korea

oAustralia

oOkunye e-Asia-Pacific

● EMpumalanga Ephakathi kanye ne-Afrika

oSaudi Arabia

i-oUAE

eNingizimu Afrika

oOkunye eMpumalanga Ephakathi kanye nase-Afrika

● ILatin America

iBrazil

i-Argentina

oOkunye eLatin America